Another name for the parafollicular cell type within the thyroid gland. C cells are situated outside of the thyroid follicles and are interspersed between the follicles. C cells are responsible for producing the hormone calcitonin.

Parafollicular cell

Endocrine cells are responsible for producing and releasing hormone molecules into the bloodstream. Endocrine cells are typically grouped together in organs referred to as endocrine glands.

Endocrine gland
Hormone

Refers to the ability of some cells to be electrically excited resulting in the generation of action potentials. Neurons, muscle cells (skeletal, cardiac, and smooth), and some endocrine cells (e.g., insulin-releasing pancreatic β cells) are excitable cells.

Resting Membrane Potential - Introduction

Refers to cells that do not generate action potentials. With the exception of neurons, muscle cells, and some endocrine cells, all cells in the body are non-excitable.

Resting Membrane Potential - Introduction

Parietal cells

Parietal cells

Cells within the thyroid gland. Parafollicular cells are situated outside of the thyroid follicles and are interspersed between the follicles. Parafollicular cells are responsible for producing the hormone calcitonin. Parafollicular cells are also referred to as C cells.

Cells in the fundus of the stomach that secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor.

Parietal cells are also known as oxyntic cells.

Thyroid follicular cells are epithelial cells that form the lining of thyroid follicles. Each thyroid follicle is surrounded by a single layer of follicular cells. Follicular cells play the key role in thyroid hormone synthesis and release.

Thyroid follicular cells are also referred to as thyrocytes.

ACh

Acetylcholine (ACh) is a chemical neurotransmitter used by the central nervous system (CNS) as well as the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Acetylcholine is a classical neurotransmitter and, in fact, it was the first of the classic neurotransmitters to be discovered. It was discovered in 1914 by Henry Hallett Dale while conducting experiments on the heart.

Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter used by the somatic division of the nervous system at the neuromuscular junction (where a somatic motor neuron makes synaptic contact with a skeletal muscle cell). Acetylcholine is also used extensively by both branches of the autonomic nervous system; sympathetic and parasympathetic. It is the primary neurotransmitter released in autonomic ganglia by preganglionic autonomic neurons. It is also the primary neurotransmitter released by parasympathetic postganglionic neurons. A few sympathetic postganglionic neurons also release acetylcholine. The diverse actions of acetylcholine are exerted via the activation of nicotinic and muscarinic ACh receptors.

Acetylcholine (Wikipedia)

The action potential is a rapid and reversible reversal of the electrical potential difference across the plasma membrane of excitable cells such as neurons, muscle cells and some endocrine cells. In a neuronal action potential, the membrane potential rapidly changes from its resting level of approximately -70 mV to around +50 mV and, subsequently, rapidly returns to the resting level again. The neuronal action potential forms an important basis for information processing, propagation, and transmission. In muscle cells, the action potential precedes, and is necessary to bring about, muscle contraction. Some endocrine cells also exhibit action potentials, where the excitation leads to hormone secretion.

The action potential is also referred to as the electrical impulse or nervous impulse.

Graded potential

Neuronal Action Potential

Moving along an axon away from the neuronal cell body toward the axon terminal.

Retrograde

Without a nucleus. In particular, it refers to a cell that lacks a nucleus. For example, prokaryotic cells are anucleate. In addition, red blood cells (erythrocytes) are anucleate.

The region of the neuron cell body from which the axon originates. The axon hillock is generally the site of action potential initiation. It is also referred to as the initial segment.

Concave on both sides of a structure, usually referring to a disc or a lens.

Of particular importance to physiology is the structure of mature red blood cells (erythrocytes), which is a flattened cell that has assume a biconcave shape. It is thought that the biconcave shape of red blood cells helps with the flow property of blood through blood vessels.

Ca²⁺

Calcium (Ca²⁺) is a divalent cation. It plays an important role in physiological processes such as muscle contraction and synaptic transmission. Calcium is also an intracellular messenger.

The extracellular concentration of Ca²⁺ is about 2 mM. The intracellular concentration of Ca²⁺ is about 70 nM.

An endogenous, tissue-specific molecule that functions to inhibit mitosis (cell division) in the very tissue releasing the molecule.

CI⁻

The main anion (negatively charged ion) of the extracellular fluid.

Cloride (Cl⁻) plays an important role in several physiological processes such as the action potential of skeletal muscle cells, CO₂ transport in blood (via Cl⁻/bicarbonate exchange across the plasma membrane of red blood cells), and many other processes.

The extracellular concentration of Cl⁻ is about 110 mM. The intracellular concentration of Cl⁻ is about 10 mM.

Refers to neurons, synapses, or receptors where acetylcholine is used as the neurotransmitter.

For example, cholinergic neurons release acetylcholine as their neurotransmitter.

In cholinergic synapses, acetylcholine is released from the presynaptic neuron, and it acts on acetylcholine receptors in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell.

Cholinergic receptors are those that respond to acetylcholine as the physiological ligand. The two major types are nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic receptors (may also be referred to as nicotinic and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors).

Cholinergic drugs are compounds that mimic the action of acetylcholine by binding to and activating cholinergic receptors.

Endocrine cell of the anterior pituitary gland responsible for synthesizing and releasing adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

A type of secondary active transport across a biological membrane in which a transport protein couples the movement of an ion (usually Na⁺ or H⁺) down its electrochemical gradient to the movement of another ion or molecule against a concentration or electrochemical gradient. The ion moving down its electrochemical gradient is referred to as the driving ion. The ion/molecule being transported against a chemical or electrochemical gradient is referred to as the driven ion/molecule.

In cotransport, the direction of transport is the same for both the driving ion and driven ion/molecule (into the cell or out of the cell).

An example is the Na⁺/glucose cotransporter (SGLT), which couples the movement of Na⁺ into the cell down its electrochemical gradient to the movement of glucose into the cell against its concentration gradient.

Cotransport is also commonly referred to as symport.

Transport proteins that are involved in this type of transport are referred to as cotransporters or symporters.

Symport

Secondary active transport
Exchange

Lecture notes on Secondary Active Transport

An electrophysiological technique in which the current passing across the cell membrane is controlled experimentally, and the membrane voltage is measured.

Voltage clamp

Neuronal Action Potential - Pharmacological Inhibition of Na⁺ and K⁺ Channels

Leading away from a region or structure of interest.

In the nervous system, efferent fibers (i.e., neurons) transmit information from the central nervous system to peripheral effector organs (i.e., muscles or glands). Therefore, the cells bodies of efferent neurons reside within the central nervous system, whereas their axonal projections exit the central nervous system to make synaptic contact with effector organs in the periphery. Efferent neurons are also referred to as motor neurons.

In the kidneys, the efferent arteriole carries blood away from the glomerular capillaries.

Afferent

Movement of a substance out of the cell.

Efflux is reported as a rate. It is the amount of substance that moves through a given area of the plasma membrane per unit time.

Flux
Influx
Unidirectional flux
Net flux

Electrogenic pumps are primary active transporters that hydrolyze ATP and use the energy released from ATP hydrolysis to transport ions across biological membranes leading to the translocation of net charge across the membrane.

For example, the Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase (sodium pump) is an electrogenic pump because during every transport cycle, it transports 3 Na⁺ ions out of the cell and 2 K⁺ ions into the cell. This leads to the movement of one net positive charge out of the cell making this process electrogenic.

Electrogenic

An electrogenic transport process is one that leads to the translocation of net charge across the membrane. For example, ion channels such as Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, and Cl⁻ channels are electrogenic.

The Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase is electrogenic because for every ATP molecule hydrolyzed, 3 Na⁺ ions are transported out of the cell and 2 K⁺ ions are transported into the cell (leading to the translocation of one net positive charge out of the cell).

Many secondary active transporters are also electrogenic. For example, the Na⁺/glucose cotransporter (found in the small intestine and kidney proximal tubules), transports 2 Na⁺ ions and 1 glucose molecule into the cell across the plasma membrane (leading to the translocation of two net positive charges into the cell per transport cycle).

Electrophysiology is the study of the electrical properties of biological macromolecules, cells, tissues, and organs. Electrical signals such as voltage and/or current are generally measured. Examples include measuring changes in the membrane voltage of excitable cells (e.g., neurons, muscle cells, and some endocrine cells) during an action potential. The current carrried by ions as they permeate the pore of ion channels can also be measured - both at the single-channel level (single-channel current), as well as the macroscopic current resulting from the activity of a population of channels. As another example, electrical measurements may involve recording voltage changes at the surface of the skin that result from the activity of skeletal muscles (electromyogram, EMG), cardiac myocytes (electrocardiogram, ECG), or neurons in the brain (electroencephalogram, EEG).

Endocrine glands contain clusters of endocrine cells, whose function is to is to release hormones into the bloodstream.

Endocrine glands are ductless glands in that their secretions do not enter a duct (as for example with salivary glands). Rather, endocrine glands release their secretions (i.e., messenger molecules) into the interstitial fluid in highly vascularized regions, where the molecules then enter the bloodstream. The chemical messenger molecule that is released into the bloodstream is referred to as a hormone.

Endocrine cell
Hormone

V_eq. or E_eq.

Refers to the membrane potential at which there is no net movement of an ion across the plasma membrane into or out of the cell.

Resting Membrane Potential - Establishment of the Membrane Potential
Resting Membrane Potential - Nernst Equilibrium Potential
Nernst Potential Calculator

A type of secondary active transport across a biological membrane in which a transport protein couples the movement of an ion (usually Na⁺ or H⁺) down its electrochemical gradient to the movement of another ion or molecule against a concentration or electrochemical gradient. The ion moving down its electrochemical gradient is referred to as the driving ion. The ion/molecule being transported against a chemical or electrochemical gradient is referred to as the driven ion/molecule.

In exchange, the driving ion and the driven ion/molecule are transported across the biological membrane in opposite directions.

An example is the Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger (NCX), which couples the movement of 3 Na⁺ ions into the cell down its electrochemical gradient to the movement of 1 Ca²⁺ ion out of the cell against its electrochemical gradient.

Exchange is also commonly referred to as antiport.

Transport proteins that are involved in this type of transport are referred to as exchangers or antiporters.

Antiport

Secondary active transport
Cotransport

Lecture notes on Secondary Active Transport

The rate of movement of a substance across an interface. The interface could be the plasma membrane (separating the intracellular or extracellular fluid compartments), an epithelial sheet separating two compartments, or where two solutions of different composition meet.

Flux is reported as a rate. It is the amount of substance that moves across a given interface per unit time.

Influx
Efflux
Unidirectional flux
Net flux

GABA

GABA is an inhibitory amino acid neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is the most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system. During embryonic development, GABA acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter at some central synapses. GABA is a classical neurotransmitter. Its action is exerted via the activation of GABA_A, GABA_B, and GABA_C receptors. GABA_A and GABA_C receptors are ligand-gated chloride channels, whereas GABA_B receptors are G protein coupled receptors. At GABAergic synapses, the action of GABA is terminated by GABA transporters (GAT), which transport GABA from the extracellular space in synaptic and extrasynaptic regions into neurons and glia.

Glutamate (Glu, E) is one of the standard twenty (20) amino acids used by cells to synthesize peptides, polypeptides, and proteins. It has a molecular weight of 147.13 g/mol. Its side chain has a pK_a of 4.07 and, therefore, glutamate has a net negative charge at physiological pH.

In the nervous system, glutamate is an excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter. In fact, glutamate is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system. Glutamate is a classical neurotransmitter. Its action is exerted via the activation of glutamate receptors (GluR), some of which are ligand-gated ion channels (ionotropic receptors), and some are G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs, metabotropic receptors). At glutamatergic synapses, the action of glutamate is terminated by glutamate transporters (EAAT, excitatory amino acid transporter), which transport glutamate from the extracellular space in synaptic and extrasynaptic regions into neurons and glia.

Glycine (Gly, G) is one of the standard twenty (20) amino acids. At a molecular weight of 75.07 g/mol, it is the smallest of the 20 amino acids used by cells to synthesize peptides, polypeptides, and proteins.

In the nervous system, glycine is also an inhibitory amino acid neurotransmitter. Glycinergic synapses are most commonly found in brain stem and spinal cord circuits. Glycine is a classical neurotransmitter. Its action is exerted via the activation of ionotropic glycine receptors (GlyR), which are ligand-gated chloride channels. At glycinergic synapses, the action of glycine is terminated by glycine transporters (GlyT), which transport glycine from the extracellular space in synaptic and extrasynaptic regions into neurons and glia.

Endocrine cell of the anterior pituitary gland responsible for synthesizing and releasing follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

A chemical messenger molecule secreted (i.e., released) by endocrine cells within endocrine glands.

By definition, a hormone molecule is released into the bloodstream and travels throughout the body to find its target cells. Teget cells may be within the intravascular compartment (i.e., within blood vessels), but most hormones have target cells in tissues outside of the blood vessels.

Endocrine cell
Endocrine gland

An increase in the number of cells in a tissue. It is generally brought about through mitotic cell division of cells within a tissue.

It also refers to an enlargement of an organ or body part due to an increase in the number of cells within the organ or body part.

Hypertrophy

An increase in the size of a cell such as muscle. It is generally brought about through the addition of cellular components.

It also refers to an enlargement of an organ or body part due to an increase in the size of the cells within the organ or body part.

Hyperplasia

Movement of a substance into the cell.

Influx is reported as a rate. It is the amount of substance that moves through a given area of the plasma membrane per unit time.

Flux
Efflux
Unidirectional flux
Net flux

A glycoprotein released by parietal cells (also know as oxyntic cells) located in the fundus region of the stomach. Intrinsic factor is required for vitamin B₁₂ absorption in the small intestine.

In electrophysiological convention, a negative current value or downward deflection of a current trace is typically referred to as an inward current. A negative current value (i.e., inward current) can reflect either the movement of positive ions (cations) into the cell or negative ions (anions) out of the cell.

Neuronal Action Potential - Pharmacological Inhibition of Na⁺ and K⁺ Channels

Refers to the ability of the thyroid gland to accumulate iodide (I⁻) against a steep electrochemical gradient. While the iodide concentration in plasma and interstitial fluid is approximately 300 nL, iodide concentration in the cytoplasm of thyroid follicular cells, as well as the lumen of thyroid follicles can be many folds higher. The protein that enables iodide transport into the thyroid gland against an electrochemical gradient is the Na⁺/iodide symporter (NIS), which is located in the basolateral membrane of thyroid follicular cells. Within the lumen of thyroid follicles, iodide is incorporated into the tyrosine residues of thyroglobulin during thyroid hormone biosynthesis, hence, allowing very high iodide concentrations in the colloid.

Endocrine cell of the anterior pituitary gland responsible for synthesizing and releasing prolactin (PRL).

The voltage difference across a cell plasma membrane.

The membrane potential is generally inside negative with respect to the outside, where the outside potential is generally set as the reference value. In electrically excitable cells, the value of the membrane potential can be positive (inside with respect to the outside) during electrical activity (i.e., during action potentials).

Resting membrane potential

Resting membrane potential

A motor unit is composed of a motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers (i.e., muscle cells) it innervates.

Alternatively, a motor unit is a group of muscle fibers innervated by a single motor neuron.

Plasma membrane of a muscle cell. It is also referred to as sarcolemma.

Sarcolemma

Cytoplasm of a muscle cell. It is also referred to as sarcoplasm.

Sarcoplasm

An equation used to calculate the equilibrium potential (V_eq.) of an ion. The equilibrium potential for an ion is also referred to as the Nernst potential for that ion. It is the membrane potential at which no net movement of the ion in question occurs across the membrane.



where V_eq. is the equilibrium potential, R is the universal gas constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin, z is the valence of the ionic species, F is the Faraday's constant, and [X]_o and [X]_i are the extracellular and intracellular, respectively, concentrations of the ion in question.

Resting Membrane Potential - Nernst Equilibrium Potential
Derivation of the Nernst Equation

Net flux represents the amount of substance moved in or out of the cell. It is the mathematical difference between influx and efflux.

Net flux = Influx − Efflux

Similar to influx and efflux, net flux is reported as a rate. It is the net amount of substance that moves through a given area of the plasma membrane per unit time.

Flux
Influx
Efflux
Unidirectional flux

Auditory sensory organ within the inner ear cochlea, where the inner and outer hair cells are located.

Cochlea

OAEs

Otoacoustic emissions (OAE) are sounds that arise from the organ of Corti within the cochlea of the inner ear in response to sound stimulation. They are thought to result from vibrations of cochlear outer hair cells (OHC) in response to stimulation by sound. Otoacoustic emissions are inaudible to the human ear, but can be recorded by placing a small recording device in the external auditory meatus (ear canal).

Otoacoustic emissions have clinical diagnostic value and are measured as part of hearing exams. In the newborn, otoacoustic emissions are recorded in order to detect blockage in the middle ear cavity (e.g., as a result of fluid accumulation) or external ear canal.

In electrophysiological convention, a positive current value or upward deflection of the current trace is typically referred to as an outward current. A positive current value (i.e., outward current) can reflect either the movement of positive ions (cations) out of the cell or negative ions (anions) into the cell.

Inward current

Neuronal Action Potential - Pharmacological Inhibition of Na⁺ and K⁺ Channels

Physiology is the study of how living systems function. The scope of physiological studies ranges from the subcellular level (molecules and organelles) all the way to the level of the whole organism and how organisms adapt to vastly different environmental conditions such as hot, cold, dry, humid, or high altitude.

What is Physiology?

Glial cell found within the posterior pituitary gland. It resembles astrocytes and functions to provide support to unmyelinated axons whose terminals release oxytocin and vasopressin.

Plasma is the fluid portion of whole blood, which makes up about 40% to 60% of the total volume of whole blood. Plasma has a light yellow color and is generally obtained by separating the fluid portion from the blood formed elements through sedimentation or centrifugation. Plasma contains mostly water and, in addition, minerals, nutrients, proteins, hormones, and gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide). Unlike serum, in which fibrinogen and other clotting factors have been removed by coagulation, fibrinogen and other clotting factors remain present in plasma.

Plasma is one the main fluid compartments of the human body, making up nearly 10% of the total volume of body fluids. Plasma makes up the intravascular fluid compartment; itself a subcompartment of the extracellular fluid compartment.

K⁺

The main cation (positively charged ion) of the intracellular fluid.

Potassium (K⁺) plays an important role in the action potential of neurons and muscle cells.

The extracellular concentration of K⁺ is about 4 mM. The intracellular concentration of K⁺ is about 150 mM.

The voltage difference across a cell plasma membrane in the resting or quiescent state. It is also simply referred to as the resting potential (V_rest). The value of the resting membrane potential varies from cell to cell. Depending on the cell type, it can range from −90 mV to −20 mV.

For example, V_rest is −90 mV in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells as well as in astrocytes. In a typical neuron, V_rest is approximately −70 mV. In many non-excitable cells, V_rest ranges from −60 to −50 mV. In photoreceptors, V_rest is about −20 mV.

Resting membrane potential

Moving from the axon terminal back toward the neuronal cell body.

Anterograde

Plasma membrane of a muscle cell. It is also referred to as myolemma.

Myolemma

Cytoplasm of a muscle cell. It is also referred to as myoplasm.

Myoplasm

Secretion refers to cellular release of substances (ions and small and large molecules) to the external environment of the cell. Secretion may be accomplished by exocytosis (fusion of transport vesicles with the plasma membrane and release of vesicle contents to the external environment), by transport of molecules across the plasma membrane (via the activity of transport proteins such as pumps, transporters, and channels), or by simple diffusion of fat-soluble molecules through the plasma membrane out of the cell.

For example, endocrine cells secrete hormone molecules that then enter the bloodstream. Neurons release (i.e., secrete) neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft. Some neurons secrete neurohormones; which similar to hormones, travel in the bloodstream to reach distant target cells. Epithelial cells secrete molecules in luminal spaces, such as digestive enzymes secreted into the digestive tract by various cell types.

Excretion

Na⁺

The main cation (positively charged ion) of the extracellular fluid.

Sodium (Na⁺) plays an important role in several physiological processes such as the action potential of neurons and muscle cells, secondary active, sodium-coupled transport of ions, nutrients, neurotransmitters across the plasma membrane of cells, and many other processes.

The extracellular concentration of Na⁺ is about 145 mM. The intracellular concentration of Na⁺ is about 15 mM.

Endocrine cell of the anterior pituitary gland responsible for synthesizing and releasing growth hormone (GH).

Sub-threshold (or subthreshold) refers to a stimulus that is too small in magnitude to produce an action potential in excitable cells.

In general, a sub-threshold stimulus leads to the depolarization of the membrane, but the magnitude of the depolarization is not large enough to reach the threshold voltage. Therefore, sub-threshold stimuli do not elicit action potentials.

Threshold
Supra-threshold

Neuronal Action Potential - Introduction

Supra-threshold (or suprathreshold) refers to a stimulus that is large enough in magnitude to produce an action potential in excitable cells.

In general, a supra-threshold stimulus leads to the depolarization of the membrane, and the magnitude of the depolarization is larger than that necessary to simply reach the threshold voltage. Therefore, supra-threshold stimuli elicit action potentials.

Threshold
Sub-threshold

Neuronal Action Potential - Introduction

Synaptic pathology. Any pathophysiological condition that leads to abnormal function of synapses within the nervous system. The pathology may be due to pre-synaptic and/or post-synaptic mechanisms, or may involve glial cells surrounding synapses.

Tastants are taste-provoking chemical molecules that are dissolved in ingested liquids or saliva.

Tastants stimulate the sense of taste. It can also be said that tastants elicit gustatory excitation.

A tastant is the appropriate ligand for receptor proteins located on the plasma membrane of taste receptor cells.

In humans, taste buds are the sensory receptor areas primarily on the tongue, but also in the throat, where taste receptor cells are located. In humans, there are approximately 10,000 taste buds in the oral cavity (tongue) and throat. A typical human taste bud contains about 50 taste receptor cells. Stimulation of taste receptor cells by tastants elicits the sense of taste (also referred to as gustation).

TTX

Inhibitor of fast voltage-gated sodium (Na⁺) channels of neurons and muscle cells. It is an extremely potent and toxic neurotoxin.

Pharmacological Inhibition of Na⁺ and K⁺ Channels

Tetrodotoxin (Wikipedia)

The membrane voltage that must be reached in an excitable cell (e.g., neuron or muscle cell) during a depolarization in order to generate an action potential. At the threshold voltage, voltage-gated channels become activated. Threshold is approximately −50 to −40 mV in most excitable cells.

Sub-threshold
Supra-threshold

Neuronal Action Potential - Introduction

Thyroid follicular cell

Thyroid follicular cell

Endocrine cell of the anterior pituitary gland responsible for synthesizing and releasing thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).

The rate of movement of a substance across an interface in only one, and not the opposite, direction (i.e., flux in only one direction). For example, when referring to the plasma membrane of cells, we can think of unidirectional flux of a substance ino the cell (referred to as influx), as well as unidirectional flux of the substance out of the cell (referred to as efflux). The difference between two unidirectional fluxes is referred to as net flux, which is the net amount that moves into or out of the cell.

Flux
Influx
Efflux
Net flux

Removal of approximately a pint of blood in a manner similar to that for donating blood. The procedure is generally used as a simple measure to reduce the number of circulating red blood cells (e.g., to treat polycythemia) or to reduce the amount of circulating iron (e.g., to treat hemochromatosis). The procedure may be repeated as needed.

It falls under procedures referred to as phlebotomy (removing blood for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes) or bloodletting (removing blood for therapeutic purposes).

An electrophysiological technique in which the voltage of a cell membrane is controlled experimentally, and the current passing across the membrane is measured.

Current clamp

Neuronal Action Potential - Pharmacological Inhibition of Na⁺ and K⁺ Channels

Areas of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) which consist mostly of myelinated axons (rather than cell bodies). The characteristic white color is due to the presence of myelin, which is mostly composed of lipids.

The part of the embryonic gonad that develops into the male reproductive ducts (epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles). In the female, this structure disappears because of the absence of anti-Müllerian hormone secreted by the Sertoli cells.